Feminism And Feminist Epistemology And Science Sociology Essay

Feminism And Feminist Epistemology And Science Sociology Essay The word feminism is very challenging and difficult to describe specifically but it has a greater value in todays society mostly in the developing areas like Nepal, Srilanka, Bangladesh etc. The women of developing countries are facing so many problems like inequality from political issues to even in their house. To eradicate such inequality problem from the existing society the word feminism developed. Feminism refers to the beliefs that are injustices against women and they have been devalued and denied full equality (1). Feminism helps to exaggerate the women roles, power and their contribution to the society. It gives the full freedom to the women about their choices of lives. This feminism refers to the equality between men and women. They have equal rights and responsibility towards the society. In the mid-1800s the term feminism was used to refer to the qualities of females (2). The term Feminism was derived from the French word feministe in the 1892 after the first international womens conference in Paris. The term feministe means belief in and advocacy of equal rights for women based on the idea of the equality of the sexes. Although the term feminism in English is rooted in the mobilization or women suffrage in Europe and the US during the late 19th and early 20th century (3). The feminist movement is divided in to three waves; First wave begin during the 19th century and it refers on a newer feminist movement that focused as much on fighting social and cultural inequalities as further political inequalities (4). The second wave in the early of 1960s, feminism saw cultural and political inequalities as inextricably linked and this movement encouraged women to understand aspects of their own lives as deeply politicized and reflective of a sexiest structure of power (5). The third wave movement arise ideology of A post structuralist interpretation of gender and sexuality in the early 1990s (6). These three movements encourage the women for their rights and their equality. The ideology of feminism starts influencing throughout the society after this movement. It brings a revolution in the way men and women are equal to each other and effects fundamental change in society. It entails that the women have equal rights and duty as a man in all aspect. What is feminist epistemology and science? Epistemologist focus on the nature, origins and the limits of human knowledge (7). It is the nature of knowledge itself and its study focuses for acquiring knowledge and differentiate between truth and falsehood. Epistemology concerns every scientific discipline which helps to the collective efforts of human beings. In the modern days the epistemology is the debate between the empiricism (i.e., knowledge is obtained through experience) and rationalism (knowledge can be acquired through reason). There are many aspects of knowledge like social, economical and many more but many of the epistemologist focus on the social aspect of knowledge where the production creation and discovery concerns. Social epistemology is the study of the relevance of social relations, interests, and institutions to knowledge (8). Feminism has also roles in social investigation of knowledge and its epistemology is concerned to the whose knowledge is being considered. Feminist epistemologist does not confess about the empirical evidence but instead of that it suggests knowing the social contexts and social beliefs because of its factuality. Feminist epistemologists of science typically argue that the way science is done includes cultural and social standards in the description of nature. Gender is both part of the cultural idea that shapes how nature is described and is also described by the process of science. The feminist critiques of science: The feminist critique of sciences is a crucial subject where the science may be negatively impacted by postmodern or feminist critiques in a similar way to humanities and social sciences. There is also a debate between the realism and relativism. Realism is that there is an objective world which people learn about. Relativism is the idea that truth is relative in one way or another. It is easy to fall into the trap that a feminist social epistemology-and any field which it makes a statement about, even science-is relativist, and many thinkers have addressed this, either making cases that relativism is correct or making claims for a realist feminist science. Background for the feminist studies of objectivity in sciences: Objectivity is commonly taken to be the extent to which we allow our scientific beliefs to be driven by some impartial and non arbitrary criteria rather than by our wishes as to how things ought to be (9).1 Science is more objective than other areas such as art and literary criticism. To be a science the research programs must follow some criteria, certain norms and rules (i.e., scientific method) rather than the prejudices, guesses and emotions. According to the great philosophers, Thomas Kuhn and Paul Feyerabend suggested the views that emphasize the degree to which what we call science is constituted by factors that seem to fall outside the realm justification. They are not trying to focus on the extent to which science is independent of who does it but instead of that it raise the questions about the real level of objectivity in science and how the scientist outline or modeled which hypothesis or theories pass for scientific knowledge. It is the crucial things to distinct between the real sciences and the rest things (non sciences). Another philosopher, Quine also raised a question about how autonomous science is from the other subjects such as prejudices, guesses and emotions i.e., metaphysical commitments. He suggested that science is not separable from other social, political beliefs that we have. The ideas given by Kuhn and Quine raise a question about the objectivity of science and these doubts arose well within what is sometime considered traditional philosophy of science.9 When the issue of gender was raised mostly many feminists were interested in determining what the possible factors of gender counts are as a scientific knowledge. A feminist tries to find out how the gender plays a role in recreation of scientific knowledge. Moreover, Gender is related with the sexism here the word sexism refers to the male, female and assumption about the superiority of one gender to the other gender however there is no conclusive evidence for that assumption. The way of women are ignoring and demoralizing in almost every field so the feminists began to criticize on those things in which science excluded women, ignored scientific issues pertaining to women and even the scientific theories influencing by the womens societal views reveal a question about the real objectivity of science. Science as Social (Helen Longino Harding): The problem seen by Harding regarding the objectivity in science is that she assumed the traditional conceptions of objectivity. To revealing and assessing the role of cultural and personal interests and values in sciences is very difficult to measure and assess. If the role is being played by cultural and personal interests and values then it is judged to be bad for science, or if the role played is considered inappropriately large then it is argued that it need have a way to eliminate or mitigate this role, thus increasing the extent to which science is objective(10). Harding was the person who finds the way to reveal and assess interests and values in science is to examine them from an alternate point of view, and she claims that current conceptions of objectivity are inadequate for these tasks. Helen longino also face the same problem as seen by Harding and longino tries to solve this problem by focusing on how the scientific community is comprised and behaves instead of not givi ng attention to what individual scientists are doing. Longino claims that science is social, in the sense that doing science requires the interaction of individuals. Feminism and post-feminism: Feminism refers to the belief that women are equal to men. Some feminist argue that women need is not equality rather they need to be recognized and valued in their differences from men but some feminists believe that women need liberation from oppression instead of equal treatment and respect for their differences to men. Feminism seeks to improve the lot of those people who have been made into women, but it cannot rightly be said that feminism seeks to improve the condition of women that would be an impossible, self-contradictory mission (11). According to Rosalind Delmar, it makes more sense to speak of a plurality of feminism than a single one (1986:9). It means that there must be some underlying commitment that all feminist share and make them feminist. Valerie Bryson says that all feminists share the belief that women are disadvantaged in comparison with men, and that this disadvantage is not a natural and inevitable result of biological difference but something that can and should be challenged and changed (Bryson 1993: 192). But some feminists would reject even this, perhaps on the grounds that womens biology does disadvantage them but that recent technologies such as the contraceptive pill allow women to overcome their biological limitations (Firestone 1970). Post-feminists believe that women have achieved second wave goals while being critical of third wave feminist goals. The term was first used in the 1980s to describe a backlash against second-wave feminism. It is now a label for a wide range of theories that take critical approaches to previous feminist discourses and includes challenges to the second waves ideas.(39) Other post-feminists say that feminism is no longer relevant to todays society.(40) Amelia Jones wrote that the post-feminist texts which emerged in the 1980s and 1990s portrayed second-wave feminism as a monolithic entity and criticized it using generalizations.(41) One of the earliest uses of the term was in Susan Bolotins 1982 article Voices of the Post-Feminist Generation, published in New York Times Magazine. This article was based on a number of interviews with women who largely agreed with the goals of feminism, but did not identify as feminists.(42) Some contemporary feminists, such as Katha Pollitt or Nadine Strossen, consider feminism to hold simply that women are people. Views that separate the sexes rather than unite them are considered by these writers to be sexist rather than feminist.'(43)(44) Conclusion: 39.Wright, Elizabeth (2000). Lacan and Postfeminism (Postmodern Encounters). Totem Books. ISBN  978-1-84046-182-9. 40.^ Modleski, Tania (1991). Feminism without women: culture and criticism in a postfeminist age. New York: Routledge. pp.  188. ISBN  0-415-90416-1. 41.^ Jones, Amelia. Postfeminism, Feminist Pleasures, and Embodied Theories of Art, in New Feminist Criticism: Art, Identity, Action, ed. by Joana Frueh, Cassandra L. Langer and Arlene Raven. New York: HarperCollins, 1994. 16-41, 20. 42^Rosen, Ruth (2001). The world split open: how the modern womens movement changed America. New York, N.Y.: Penguin. pp.  444. ISBN  0-14-009719-8. 43.^Pollitt, Katha (1995). Reasonable creatures: essays on women and feminism. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN  978-0-679-76278-2. 44 Strossen, Nadine (1995). Defending pornography: free speech, sex, and the fight for womens rights. New York, N.Y.: Scribner. ISBN  978-0-684-19749-4.

Satellite Radio and Howard Stern Essay examples -- essays research pap

Satellite Radio: Will Howard Stern's move make us change the way we think about radio? Howard Stern's plan to move to satellite radio in January 2006 marks a major turning point for the radio industry. Not only has Stern brought the  possibility of subscribing to satellite radio into the minds of the millions in his audience, he has also gotten more people to start thinking and talking about what really distinguishes satellite radio from traditional radio. Satellite radio was first authorized by the Federal Communication Commission (FCC) in 1997, seven years after initial applications. The delay in approval was in part the result of protests by the National Association of Broadcasters which charged that the service threatened "traditional American values of community cohesion and local identity." Ironically, as these charges were being made, traditional radio was becoming nationalized through use of more national programming and industry  consolidation under Clear Channel Communications and Infinity Broadcasting.  The FCC dealt with these issues by restricting satellite radio to only national programming. Essentially this rule minimizes competition with traditional radio stations that only reach local markets and get the majority of their revenue from local advertisers. Despite there currently being very few small, independent, local broadcasters to protect, this remains the most significant regulation on satellite radio.[1] Today there are two main players in the satellite radio business: Sirius and XM. Though Sirius signed Stern, XM is currently the leader in terms of  subscribers. Both companies have neared bankruptcy at various points in their short history, and both have yet to make a profit. By signing Stern for $500 million over five years, Sirius must gain at least one million subscribers to pay this commitment.[2] Clearly satellite radio has a long way to go, but with steady growth and high-profile contracts (not only with  radio personalities, but with car companies who now install satellite radio  equipment in all new cars), the future remains wide open. Satellite radio is subscription-based, commercial-free, and largely unregulated. This last point appears to be the main draw for Stern. Since  the infamous Super Bowl incident this year, there have been calls for significantly expanding FCC indecency re... ...quot; due to his success with radio, books, television, and movies, but whether his kingdom will extend to satellite radio is yet to be seen. Free  speech is one of the key rights Americans have, but this right has always been in some degree of conflict with decency laws. The progressively stringent restrictions on the content of traditional radio have gotten so extreme in the past few years that, perhaps, finally they have gone too far. Listeners will soon wake up to the reality that what they want to hear in the morning has moved and in order to maintain their rights they must move too. If this is the case and audiences truly value "free listening," satellite radio will mark the end of traditional radio as we know it. [1] http://slate.msn.com/id/2097247/ [2] http://money.cnn.com/2004/10/06/news/newsmakers/stern sirius/ [3] see [2] [4] http://www.forbes.com/feeds/ap/2004/10/06/ap1578735.html [5] http://www.forbes.com/business/2004/10/06/cx sw 1006stern.html?partner=rss [6] Telecommunications Act of 1996 Â § 507 [7] Being commercial-free and having a wider selection of programming in many areas are also deemed to be significant advantages of satellite radio.

Principals-Agents’ Conflict of Interest

Principals (shareholders) – agent (managers) problem represents the conflict of interest between management and owners. For example, if shareholders cannot effectively monitor the managers’ behaviour, then managers may be tempted to use the firm’s assets for their own ends, all at the expenses of shareholders. Discuss the pros and cons of this statement with regard to duties of Board of Directors. Most organisations these days are no more owned by their managers. This separation of ownership and management gives rise to what is called agency relationship. Jensen and Meckling (1976) define the agency relationship as â€Å"a contract under which one party (the principal) engages another party (agent) to perform the some services on their behalf. As part of this, the principal will delegate some decision making authority to the agent â€Å". However, it is important to mention that this relationship is not always peaceful and harmonious; rather, it usually raises some agency problems commonly called conflict of interests between shareholders and managers of the company. These conflicts occur when a person i. . the manager has an obligation not to act in his own personal interest but in another person’s interest i. e. the shareholders. This means that in whatever situation, managers must prioritise shareholders’ benefits. But is this commitment always respected in principals-agents relationships? Hopefully, between these two groups, is the board of directors; directors who are elected by shareholders to act as their representatives by monitoring and controlling managers tasks and ensuring they are in line with shareholders’ expectations. With clear evidence that conflicts of interest are almost unavoidable in any agency relationships, an attempt will be made will be made to get an insight into that issue with regards to board of directors duties. Brennan (1994) states that â€Å" agency problems emanate from the arrangement where the interests of the agents differ substantially from those of the principals because of the impossibility of perfectly contracting for every possible action of the agents whose decisions affect both his welfare and the welfare of the principal â€Å". Therefore, this raises the issue of finding ways to motivate managers to solely act in the best interest of shareholders. However, in a world where the labour market is becoming more and more imperfect and competitive, managers will be more concerned with their personal benefits at the expense of shareholders’ benefits. Since they are the one taking care of the day-to-day activities of the company, they know better than anyone any single details about how the various tasks are being performed and how that affects the company. Therefore, they might be tempted to take advantage of that by consuming some of the organisation’s resources in the form of lavish perquisites such as airplanes. Agency conflicts imply that shareholders wealth maximisation is being subordinated in managers’ goals for the company. Clear evidence of this assumption could be that top level managers are more worried about increasing their salaries, raising their status within the company, creating more opportunities for lower managers or assuring their job security and to achieve all this, their main objective could rather be to enlarge the firm by creating more subsidiaries. Such an action could produce results that do not necessarily maximise the value of the organisation for shareholders, rather, management welfare. We can notice that in conflict of interest, agents are mostly interested in achieving objectives that they feel will be profitable to them, but which are not necessarily or directly for the sake of shareholders. This occurs as a result of the distance created between the shareholders and the management team which prevent the former to effectively monitor and control managers’ behaviour. If agents do things that hurt principals, why don’t they take strong actions against that? In order to remedy to this situation, shareholders rely among others on the board of directors which they elect to look out for their interests and protect them for financial losses due to inadequate managerial actions. Bonazzi L. , Islam (2007) defines the function of the board as a â€Å" collective responsibility to determine the company’s purpose and â€Å"ethics†, to decide the direction, i. e. the strategy; to plan; to monitor and control managers and CEO activities, then to report and make recommendations to shareholders â€Å". To achieve this, they are expected to act in accordance with their four main duties which involve: the fiduciary duty, the duty of loyalty, the duty of confidentiality and the duty of care. In performing their fiduciary duties, directors assumes two roles, the first one as an â€Å"agent† which means acting on behalf of shareholders and the second one as a â€Å"trustee† which means they are in charge of controlling the organisation assets so they have to act â€Å" bona fide â€Å" which means in good faith towards the company; acting only within the scope of their powers and uniquely for the purpose that benefits the business and to avoid being involved in conflict between personal and the company’s interest. First and foremost, the board has as duty to govern the organisation by designing broad policies, and objectives which are intended to provide managers with guidance on how they are expected to run the business, i. e. prioritizing principals’ benefits, and, where they are expected to take the firm to in terms of increasing its value. They must continuously review the performance of the chief executive to ensure that managerial actions are in line with shareholders wishes and given that they are accountable to the former, they have to report to them about the overall organisational performance. Regarding their duty of loyalty, directors must prevent conflict of interest by avoiding transactions which may generate a potential conflict; those transactions according to Professor Bernard S. Black of Standford Law School in an article entitled The principal Fiduciary Duties of Boards of Directors are called â€Å" self-dealing â€Å" transactions. Representing at the same time the boss to one extend and the subordinate to another extend, directors must make sure never to act in ways that will harm either the shareholders or the executives, treat both parties with care and respect and try to make good decisions i. . that will compromise none of the parties, but which will be profitable to the firm. Also, board members have the duty to keep private all dealings, matters and information from the board meeting and the company in order to avoid the disclosure or misuse of information which may lead to a conflict. From the study of board members duties, we can state that companies’ corporate governance rests mostly on their shoulders. So, when effective, it permits the realisation of corporate objectives, risk management, the reduction of agency problems and an increase in the value of the firm. Despite the fact that conflict of interest is quite an obvious issue between shareholders and managers, it is important to keep in mind that the former are the owners of the business and thus, have great powers on the company; for instance through their voting rights at the annual shareholders meeting where they might decide â€Å"to vote with their feet† i. . selling their shares, exposing the organisation to a potential takeover that will lead managers to lose their job. Consequently, managers must at least try to satisfy their principals by aligning their actions and decisions with shareholders expectations; as well as must principals induce their agents to work for their best interest. To achieve this, they must incur some agency costs. In the 1976 Journal of Finance paper by Michael Jensen and William Meckling, it is stated that â€Å"there are three major types of agency costs: (1) expenditures to monitor managerial activities, such as audit costs; (2) expenditure to structure the organisation in a way that will limit undesirable managerial behaviour, such as appointing outside members to the board of directors or restructuring the company’s business units and management hierarchy; and (3) opportunity costs which are incurred when shareholder-imposed restrictions, such as requirements for shareholder votes on specific issues, limit the ability of managers to take actions that advance shareholder wealth†. In a nutshell, conflict of interest is a real fact in every business. Principal-agent relationship can be viewed as complex in terms of how exactly agents are expected to act towards their principals. Obviously, their acts must always be aimed at serving shareholders interest, but this statement seems to imply that either principals’ interests are always morally acceptable or managers might act unethically provided they fulfil shareholders’ expectations. Virtually, all corporate code of ethics addresses conflict of interest because it interferes with the ability of employees to act in the best interest of the firm. The fact is that, the agent is expected to act solely for the benefit of the principal in all matters and situations, yet, the kind of situation or dilemma the agent might be called upon to act in his principal interest are not easily predictable or identified. As optimal solution, it would be advantageous for both parties if they could work in concert prioritising the success of the organisation, and trying to satisfy as much as possible each group’s benefits, because it would help avoiding or at least reducing potential conflict of interest.

Free Essays on Globalization and Music

From Dean Martin to Wyclef Jean: The Affects of Globalization on Music â€Å"Won’t you help me sing these songs of freedom?† -Bob Marley The influence that music has throughout the world is immeasurable. Music evokes many feeling, surfaces old memories, and creates new ones all while satisfying a sense of human emotion. With the ability to help identify a culture, as well as educate countries about other cultures, music also provides for a sense of knowledge. Music can be a tool for many things: relaxation, stimulation and communication. But at the same time it can also be a tool for resistance: against parents, against police against power. Within the reign of imported culture, cross cultivation and the creation of the so-called global village lies the need to expand horizons to engulf more than just what you see everyday. It is important to note that the role of music in today’s world is a key tool in the process of globalization. However, this does not necessarily provide us with any reasons that would make us believe that music has a homogenizing affect on the world. Globalization is becoming one of the most controversial topics in today’s world. We see people arguing over the loss of a nation’s cultural identity, the terror of westernization, and the reign of cultural imperialism. Through topics such as these we explore the possibilities or the existence of hybridization of cultures and values, and what some feel is the exploitation of their heritage. One important aspect that is not explored is that such influences can also be more than just a burden and an overstepping of bounds. These factors can create an educational environment as well as a reaffirmation of one’s own culture. With the music being the highly profitable, capitalist enterprise that it is today, it is no wonder that it is controlled and regulated by a few large conglomerates that exist is today’s world. It is important to m... Free Essays on Globalization and Music Free Essays on Globalization and Music From Dean Martin to Wyclef Jean: The Affects of Globalization on Music â€Å"Won’t you help me sing these songs of freedom?† -Bob Marley The influence that music has throughout the world is immeasurable. Music evokes many feeling, surfaces old memories, and creates new ones all while satisfying a sense of human emotion. With the ability to help identify a culture, as well as educate countries about other cultures, music also provides for a sense of knowledge. Music can be a tool for many things: relaxation, stimulation and communication. But at the same time it can also be a tool for resistance: against parents, against police against power. Within the reign of imported culture, cross cultivation and the creation of the so-called global village lies the need to expand horizons to engulf more than just what you see everyday. It is important to note that the role of music in today’s world is a key tool in the process of globalization. However, this does not necessarily provide us with any reasons that would make us believe that music has a homogenizing affect on the world. Globalization is becoming one of the most controversial topics in today’s world. We see people arguing over the loss of a nation’s cultural identity, the terror of westernization, and the reign of cultural imperialism. Through topics such as these we explore the possibilities or the existence of hybridization of cultures and values, and what some feel is the exploitation of their heritage. One important aspect that is not explored is that such influences can also be more than just a burden and an overstepping of bounds. These factors can create an educational environment as well as a reaffirmation of one’s own culture. With the music being the highly profitable, capitalist enterprise that it is today, it is no wonder that it is controlled and regulated by a few large conglomerates that exist is today’s world. It is important to m...

Compare and Contrast Essay on Sports

Compare and Contrast Essay on Sports Compare and Contrast Essay on Sports Sporting activities are very popular for many people and nations across the world. The reason is that they bring people from different and diverse backgrounds together. They help create a strong bond between societies that participate in the various sports. It has also become a huge economic activity. Many people make large sums of money when they are sportsmen or sports women. Some become millionaires when they are still underage, and this makes their life easier. Sports can also be dangerous. Many instances of deaths have also been reported in sporting events. Due to the financial gain and the fame that results from success in sporting events, many people engage in dangerous sports. The majority of people to engage in sporting for anticipated heath gains, and this has received much attention across the world. However, this gives rise to a debate about the truth of sport being healthy or not. Some sports call for extreme health and fitness because they are so dangerous, and can lead to causing harm to, or, the death of the participants or the audience. Hence, this subject lends itself to compare and contrast essays. How to write a good compare and contrast essay on sports: You need not be a sport expert.  The writer must, however, understand the workings of sport, the different kinds of sport, and the motivations behind the sports. Whether you can play sport is not an essential ingredient for an unbiased essay. You need to deal with success and failure.  The writer of such a comparative essay should analyze the successes and the failures of sports people. However, success should not be only measured by the money that an individual got from participating a sporting activity, but also the health gains that he/she made. Many people who engaged in sports and made fortunes also suffered injuries that end up frustrating their future. Compare the possiblity of riches with injuries.  The writer should compare whether getting such injuries is worth the money or financial gain received. Sportspeople have died after taking part in competitive sports, and left behind all the monies that they accumulated in their sporting career, for example, various Formula One drivers. Others, like Mohommed Ali, got injuries that eventually confined them, and their lives were made difficult without the use of expensive medications. Such negative repercussions should be compared with the positive gains that sports people get. For instance, being a successful footballer is a shortcut for being wealthy and famous. Many people want to be associated with successful sportspeople, and many still believe that sports are the most lucrative investment that one can have. Compare and contrast financial inequalities between different sports.  The writer should also compare the merits and demerits across the different sporting disciplines that exist. For instance, success in boxing and football mean different things. Tennis and golf, or rugby and cricket are not the same. Some of these sports are more dangerous than others, and the financial gains acquired vary across the different sporting disciplines. At custom writing service you have a great opportunity to order a custom essay on any sports related topic.

Report on a professional meeting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Report on a professional meeting - Essay Example It is something that everyone, including those across the political spectrum would agree that the country faces growing crisis. No doubt Great British has one of the world’s worst building stock with7 million homes warped into abject poverty. For the past three years just two million cavity walls were insulated. Kirsty Warle reiterated that even though enough efficiency will save money up front; many people, especially the younger generation were faced with financial constraints making hard for them to own homes, and thus are forced to live with parents because they cannot afford rent. Warle also stated that many Britons are nowadays increasingly worrying about keeping their homes warn in the depth of winter more than they are concerned about climate protection. Many of these people find themselves in payment difficulties. The issue of fuel poverty has, glaringly, been overlooked, and there in no measure in place that can supplement low-income households. The speaker also touched on the willingness of Green Deal Company that is looking forward to implementing a viable program that will be determined to help low-income-households with refurbishing solid cavity walls, once it’s approved by the government. Kirsty also reminded the audience in attendance that Institute of Sustainability Chief Executive of East Thames Building Institution work has been tried. His work include flash program, which is primarily concerned with refurbishment of the future UCL, working closely with supply chain contractors, suppliers and users, amid others. For the refurbishment of t he future to be successfully effective, helping contractors through training them should be considered. The buying of upgraded houses, which could include council houses, could also assist to avoiding refurbishing backlog in the future. On the same length, low-income house holds worry a lot too much

Modern Misogyny Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Modern Misogyny - Essay Example Our status, politics, educational systems, and advertising are littered with the not so subtle remnants of misogyny. Though the new feminism has fought to correct these notions of prejudice and scorn, we must wonder if any progress has been made. A daily newspaper, a television show, or a pop recording will reveal the undercurrent of misogyny that flows beneath the sea of women's rights. Religion and mythology have been the most ardent perpetrators of misogyny throughout history. In the biblical story of the Garden of Eden, Eve is blamed for Adams's downfall. According to Dr. Gary Macy, professor of theology at the University of San Diego, during the Middle Ages the Catholic Church used its power, ancient texts, and the rewriting of canon law to "make misogyny an official part of church doctrine" (Rigby). Women were not only barred from the priesthood, but Macy adds that canon law "expressly forbid any woman from serving as a ruler, politician, or judge because of the fact that women were too stupid to understand the law" (qtd. in Rigby). This attitude of misogyny has lasted through the centuries as we see the under-representation of women in positions of corporate, political, and public leadership. The Catholic Church did not have a monopoly on misogyny in history. One of the most brutally misogynist religions has been Islam. Aristotle viewed women as defective, void of shame, false of speech, and inferior to the male. His writings influenced later Muslim theologians and Arab philosophers. According to Hashmi, the difference between pre-modern misogyny and modern Islam is difficult to discern and notes that, "There is hardly any difference between the misogynic expositions by Aristotle and a village mullah1 in Bangladesh". The Taliban in the Afghanistan region have exemplified this doctrine and the status of Islamic women in Saudi Arabia has also suffered under these beliefs. The misogyny that infiltrates the world's religions has been a "Pandora's Box" for politics. The US democratic form of government has offered little protection. When first formed in the 18th century, women had no more rights outside the churches than within them. The witch trials had confirmed men's suspicions of a woman's power and were reluctant to share their God given domain of rule. Women could not vote, own property, or participate in the economy. They could not hold public office. To date there has not been a woman President or Vice-President. Nancy Pelosi became the first female to become Speaker of the House in spite of her gender. Women make up 50% of the voting public, yet they hold less than 10% of the Congressional seats and only 1% of the Senate ("Minorities and Women"). Once misogyny was released from the box, it became a difficult task to put it back in its place. Centuries of legitimized misogyny have also infected the economic system. We hear of the 'glass ceiling' and the wage disparity between male and female workers performing the same duties. What is often overlooked are the subtler ways that the misogynist attitudes affect women. In our education system we have recently heard a Harvard University President propose that, "because Harvard draws only from the very top, it would be understandable that very few women would be found there" (Nelson). The misogyny in the Universities works its way into the boardrooms and decision-making processes of our economy. The public's lack of concern